Contoh Informal dan Formal

Organisasi Formal

Organisasi formal memiliki suatu struktur yang terumuskan dengan baik, yang menerangkan hubungan-hubungan otoritasnya, kekuasaan, akuntabilitas dan tanggung jawabnya. Struktur yang ada juga menerangkan bagaimana bentuk saluran-saluran melalui apa komunikasi berlangsung. Kemudian menunjukkan tugas-tugas terspesifikasi bagi masing-masing anggotanya. Hierarki sasaran organisasi formal dinyatakan secara eksplisit. Status, prestise, imbalan, pangkat dan jabatan, serta prasarat lainya terurutkan dengan baik dan terkendali. Selain itu organisasi formal tahan lama dan mereka terencana dan mengingat bahwa ditekankan mereka beraturan, maka mereka relatif bersifat tidak fleksibel. Contoh organisasi formal ádalah perusahaan besar, badan-badan pemerintah, dan universitas-universitas (J Winardi, 2003:9).

Organisasi informal

Keanggotaan pada organisasi-organisasi informal dapat dicapai baik secara sadar maupun tidak sadar, dan kerap kali sulit untuk menentukan waktu eksak seseorang menjadi anggota organisasi tersebut. Sifat eksak hubungan antar anggota dan bahkan tujuan organisasi yang bersangkutan tidak terspesifikasi. Contoh organisasi informal adalah pertemuan tidak resmi seperti makan malam bersama. Organisasi informal dapat dialihkan menjadi organisasi formal apabila hubungan didalamnya dan kegiatan yang dilakukan terstruktur dan terumuskan. Selain itu, organisasi juga dibedakan menjadi organisasi primer dan organisasi sekunder menurut Hicks:

• Organisasi Primer, organisasi semacam ini menuntut keterlibatan secara lengkap, pribadi dan emosional anggotanya. Mereka berlandaskan ekspektasi rimbal balik dan bukan pada kewajiban yang dirumuskan dengan eksak. Contoh dari organisasi semacam ini adalah keluarga-keluarga tertentu.
• Organisasi Sekunder, organisasi sekunder memuat hubungan yang bersifat intelektual, rasional, dan kontraktual. Organisasi seperti ini tidak bertujuan memberikan kepuasan batiniyah, tapi mereka memiliki anggota karena dapat menyediakan alat-alat berupa gaji ataupun imbalan kepada anggotanya. Sebagai contoh organisasi ini adalah kontrak kerjasama antara majikan dengan calon karyawannya dimana harus saling setuju mengenai seberapa besar pembayaran gajinya.

Pengertian, Definisi dan Arti Organisasi - Organisasi Formal dan Informal - Belajar Online Lewat Internet Ilmu Manajemen

A. Arti Istilah Organisasi

1. Organisasi Menurut Stoner
Organisasi adalah suatu pola hubungan-hubungan yang melalui mana orang-orang di bawah pengarahan manajer mengejar tujuan bersama.

2. Organisasi Menurut James D. Mooney
Organisasi adalah bentuk setiap perserikatan manusia untuk mencapai tujuan bersama.

3. Organisasi Menurut Chester I. Bernard
Organisasi merupakan suatu sistem aktivitas kerja sama yang dilakukan oleh dua orang atau lebih.

B. Penertian / Definisi Organisasi Informal dan Organisasi Formal

1. Organisasi Formal
Organisasi formal adalah kumpulan dari dua orang atau lebih yang mengikatkan diri dengan suatu tujuan bersama secara sadar serta dengan hubungan kerja yang rasional. Contoh : Perseroan terbatas, Sekolah, Negara, dan lain sebagainya.

2. Organisasi Informal
Organisasi informal adalah kumpulan dari dua orang atau lebih yang telibat pada suatu aktifitas serta tujuan bersama yang tidak disadari. Contoh : Arisan ibu-ibu sekampung, belajar bersama anak-anak sd, kemping ke gunung pangrango rame-rame dengan teman, dan lain-lain.

Adverb Clauses To Show Opposition

These type of clauses show an unexpected or non self-evident result based on the dependent clause. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive. Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of adverb clauses showing opposition.

Punctuation

When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: Even though the it was expensive, he bought the car.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive.

For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage.

Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition
Even though, though, although

* Even though it was expensive, he bought the car.
* Though he loves doughnuts, he has given them up for his diet.
* Although he course was difficult, he passed with the highest marks.

Notice how 'though, even though' or 'although' show a situation which is contrary to the main clause to express opposition. Even though, though and although are all synonyms.
Whereas, while

* Whereas you have lots of time to do your homework, I have very little time indeed.
* Mary is rich, while I am poor.

'Whereas' and 'while' show clauses in direct opposition to each other. Notice that you should always use a comma with 'whereas' and 'while'.

Using Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions

This resources provides four pages of adverb clause usage including:

* Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions
* Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition
* Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions
* Adverb Clauses with Expressions of Cause and Effect

The first page focuses on adverb clauses which are often called "time clauses" in English grammar books and follow specific patterns. Take a look at the chart below to study the various usage of different time expressions.
Punctuation

When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.

Adverb Clauses with Time
When

* He was talking on the phone when I arrived.
* When she called, he had already eaten lunch.
* I washed the dishes when my daughter fell asleep.
* We'll go to lunch when you come to visit.

'When' means 'at that moment, at that time, etc.'. Notice the different tenses used in relationship to the clause beginning with when. It is important to remember that 'when' takes either the simple past OR the present - the dependent clause changes tense in relation to the 'when' clause.

Before

* We will finish before he arrives.
* She (had) left before I telephoned.

'Before' means 'before that moment'. It is important to remember that 'before' takes either the simple past OR the present.

After

* We will finish after he comes.
* She ate after I (had) left.

'After' means 'after that moment'. It is important to remember that 'after' takes the present for future events and the past OR past perfect for past events.

While, as

* She began cooking while I was finishing my homework.
* As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking.

'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time'. 'While' and 'as' are both usually used with the past continuous because the meaning of 'during that time' which indicates an action in progess.
By the time

* By the time he finished, I had cooked dinner.
* We will have finished our homework by the time they arrive.

'By the time' expresses the idea that one event has been completed before another. It is important to notice the use of the past perfect for past events and future perfect for future events in the main clause. This is because of the idea of something happening up to another point in time.

Until, till

* We waited until he finished his homework.
* I'll wait till you finish.

'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time'. We use either the simple present or simple past with 'until' and 'till'. 'Till' is usually only used in spoken English.

Since

* I have played tennis since I was a young boy.
* They have worked here since 1987.

'Since' means 'from that time'. We use the present perfect (continuous) with 'since'. 'Since' can also be used with a specific point in time.

As soon as

* He will let us know as soon as he decides (or as soon as he has decided).
* As soon as I hear from Tom, I will give you a telephone call.

'As soon as' means 'when something happens - immediately afterwards'. 'As soon as' is very similar to 'when' it emphasizes that the event will occur immediately after the other. We usually use the simple present for future events, although present perfect can also be used.

Whenever, every time

* Whenever he comes, we go to have lunch at "Dick's".
* We take a hike every time he visits.

'Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each time something happens'. We use the simple present (or the simple past in the past) because 'whenever' and 'every time' express habitual action.

The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time

* The first time I went to New York, I was intimidated by the city.
* I saw Jack the last time I went to San Francisco.
* The second time I played tennis, I began to have fun.

The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time means 'that specific time'. We can use these forms to be more specific about which time of a number of times something happened.

Simple Past

FORM

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

* You called Debbie.
* Did you call Debbie?
* You did not call Debbie.

Complete List of Simple Past Forms
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

* I saw a movie yesterday.
* I didn't see a play yesterday.
* Last year, I traveled to Japan.
* Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
* Did you have dinner last night?
* She washed her car.
* He didn't wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

* I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
* He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
* Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

* I lived in Brazil for two years.
* Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
* They sat at the beach all day.
* They did not stay at the party the entire time.
* We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
* A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

* I studied French when I was a child.
* He played the violin.
* He didn't play the piano.
* Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
* She worked at the movie theater after school.
* They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

Examples:

* She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
* He didn't like tomatoes before.
* Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
* People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

* When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
* She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

* I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

* You just called Debbie.
* Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

* Tom repaired the car. Active
* The car was repaired by Tom. Passive

The Present Perfect Tense

How to form the Present Perfect Tense in English:
present perfect simple present perfect progressive
I, you, we, they have played I, you, we, they have been playing
he, she, it has played he, she, it has been playing
have/has + 3rd form have/has been + ing-form

(1)Questions and Negations are formed with have or has. A question asking for the subject always starts with "Who has ...?"(1)
When to use the Present Perfect Simple

Basic Rules:

* We use the Present perfect simple to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You cannot use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We can use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.


* Present perfect simple is often used to describe events which happened just before the „here and now". This tense describes the results and/or developments in the present. This is the most important feature to notice. One might suggest that this tense is not to be seen in the group of “past tenses”; it rather should be seen as a present tense, as it concerns itself with the effects of past events in the here and now.


* It is not important when the events happened; it is rather important if they happened and what effect they have on the present situation.


Susan’s hair is wet. She has been in the shower.
Her hair is wet now. This is the result of an action happened in the past. The Present Perfect Tense describes the result of this event in the here and now.

The king has arrived.
The king is here! Now we can celebrate, dance, etc. It is not important when he came, it is important that he came. Therefore, there is no time designation.

Tom has gone out.
He is not here now! Again, it is not important when he left.

Have you seen Susan?
Have you seen here until now? Do you know where she is now?

Jill hasn't called.
She hasn’t called until now.

Signal Words

There are several words which signal the use of this distinctive tense:

* just, yet, never, already, ever, so far, up to now, recently, since, for, etc.


My brother Tom has just arrived. We can have dinner now.
Miriam has just called and asked for you, Daniel.

That's a great movie! I've already seen it several times.
Would you like some biscuit? - No, thanks. I've already had three.

Have you ever played Tennis? - No, never.
Who has ever heard of Dracula before?

I have never tried to go downhill skiing.
Susi has never seen snow before!

Tom told me he has been very satisfied with his new phone so far.
I asked Uncle Jim to get in touch with us, but so far he hasn't called.

Has Dad arrived yet?
I haven't seen him yet.

Have they mailed yet?
They have already replied, yes.

* in the last few days, hours ...), recently, lately this (week, morning, year...), today, all day

Usually, the Present Perfect Simple doesn’t demand a time designation. But, it is possible to estimate the time frame:

Mia has called three times in the last two hours. In the last few days I haven't seen our cat.

Have you talked to Monica recently? - No, I haven't.
I've met some very clever students lately.

Daniel has been to Malaysia two times this year. This week, we've had three major blackouts already.

What have you done in the office all day? Today, I've visited Mary, written three blog entries and backed a cake.

Modal verb

A modal verb (also modal, modal auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary) is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. The use of auxiliary verbs to express modality is a characteristic of Germanic languages.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Function
* 2 List
* 3 Properties
* 4 See also
* 5 Bibliography
* 6 References
* 7 External links

[edit] Function

Modal auxiliary verbs give more information about the function of the main verb that follows it. Although having a great variety of communicative functions, these functions can all be related to a scale ranging from possibility (can) to necessity (must). Within this scale there are two functional divisions:

* one concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to act (including ability, permission and duty),
* and the other (shall not included) concerns itself with the theoretical possibility of propositions being true or not true, including likelihood and certainty:

must = absolute (often moral) obligation, order, requirement, necessity; can/could = physical or mental ability; may/might = permission, option, choice; will = intention in 1st person, volition in 2nd and 3rd persons; and shall/should = in 1st person objective though not moral obligation, no choice, as in: One day I shall die: we all shall die one day; in 2nd and third persons shall implies an incumbent obligation, destiny (It shall come to pass) or a command, decree, necessity imposed by the speaker, as in: A meeting shall take place on the last Friday of every month or a promise, namely that the speaker is stating his obligation to another party that an action or event take place, as in: You shall go to the ball, Cinderella. However, if a speaker states: I will let you go to the ball, Cinderella, in stating his intention, he is, in this instance, also making a promise.

Most modal auxiliary verbs have two distinct interpretations, epistemic (expressing how certain the factual status of the embedded proposition is) and deontic (involving notions of permission and obligation). The following sentences illustrate the two uses of must:

* epistemic: You must be starving. (= "It is necessarily the case that you are starving.")
* deontic: You must leave now. (= "You are required to leave now.")
* ambiguous: You must speak Spanish.
o epistemic = "It is surely the case that you speak Spanish (e.g., after having lived in Spain for ten years)."
o deontic = "It is a requirement that you speak Spanish (e.g., if you want to get a job in Spain)."

Epistemic modals can be analyzed as raising verbs, while deontic modals can be analyzed as control verbs.

Another form of modal auxiliary is the verb indicating ability: "can" in English, "können" in German, and "possum" in Latin. For example, "I can say that in English," "Ich kann das auf Deutsch sagen," and "Illud Latine dicere possum."

Sometimes, the use of the modal auxiliary verbs varies in positive and negative statements. For example, in English, we have the sentence pair, "You may do that," and "You may not do that." However, in German, these ideas are expressed as "Sie dürfen das tun," but "Sie müssen das nicht tun." The latter looks as if it would translate into English as "You must not do that," but it is more typically translated as "You may not do that."
[edit] List

This table lists some modal verbs with common roots in English, German and Dutch. English modal auxiliary verb provides an exhaustive list of modal verbs in English.

Words in the same row share the same etymological root. Because of semantic drift, however, words in the same row may no longer be proper translations of each other. In addition, the English and German verbs will are completely different in meaning, and the German one has nothing to do with constructing the future tense. These words are false friends.

In English, the plural and singular forms are identical. For German and Dutch, both the plural and singular form of the verb are shown.

Please note that the words in this list are not translations of each other. (See above.)
English German Dutch
can können, kann kunnen, kan
shall sollen, soll zullen, zal
will wollen, will willen, wil
must müssen, muss moeten, moet
may mögen, mag mogen, mag
tharf[1] dürfen, darf durven, durf

The English could is the past tense of can; should is the past tense of shall; and might is the past tense of may. (This is ignoring the use of "may" as a vestige of the subjunctive mood in English.) These verbs have acquired an independent, present tense meaning. The German verb möchten is sometimes taught as a vocabulary word and included in the list of modal verbs, but it is actually the past subjunctive form of mögen. An example of the subjective use of "may" in English is in the sentence "That may be, or may not be," meaning "That could be true, but maybe it is not."

The English verbs dare and need have both a modal use (he dare not do it), and a non-modal use (he doesn't dare to do it). The Dutch verb durven is not considered a modal (but it is there, nevertheless) because its modal use has disappeared, but it has a non-modal use analogous with the English dare. Other English modal verbs include want, wish, hope, and like. All of these differ from the main modals in English (i.e. most of those in the table above) in that they take the particle to in the infinitive, like all other English verbs (may; to want), and are followed by to when they are used as a modal (may go; want to go). Some may be more than one word, such as "had better" and "would rather."[2]
[edit] Properties

Germanic modal verbs are preterite-present verbs, which means that their present tense has the form of a vocalic preterite. This is the source of the vowel alternation between singular and plural in German and Dutch. Because of their preterite origins, modal verbs also lack the suffix (-s in modern English, -t in German and Dutch) that would normally mark the third person singular form:
normal verb modal verb
English he works he can
German er arbeitet er kann
Dutch hij werkt hij kan

The main verb that is modified by the modal verb is in the infinitive form and is not preceded by the word to (German: zu, Dutch: te). There are verbs that may seem somewhat similar in meaning to modal verbs (e.g. like, want), but the construction with such verbs would be different:
normal verb modal verb
English he tries to work he can work
German er versucht zu arbeiten er kann arbeiten
Dutch hij probeert te werken hij kan werken

In English, main verbs but not modal verbs always require the auxiliary verb do to form negations and questions, and can be used to form emphatic affirmative statements. Neither negations nor questions in early modern English used to require do.
normal verb modal verb
affirmative he works he can work
negation he does not work he cannot work
emphatic he does work hard he can work hard
question does he work here? can he work at all?
negation + question does he not work here? can he not work at all?

(German never uses "do" as an auxiliary verb for any function; Dutch uses "do" as an auxiliary, but only in colloquial speech)

Modal verbs are called defective verbs because of their incomplete conjugation: they have a narrower range of functions than ordinary verbs.
[edit] See also

* English modal auxiliary verb
* Grammatical mood
* Linguistic modality
* Preterite-present verb
* Defective verb
* Modal logic
* Semi-modal